Luther man between God and the Devil

Introduction The preface to Luther by Heiko A. Oberman gives the reader a sneak preview of what to expect while reading the book. In his opening sentence however, Oberman warns the reader that discovering Luther is something that cannot fit within the confine of scholarship exposition. To understand Luther however, Oberman notes that people must be ready to leave behind their views about the world and life.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Luther: man between God and the Devil specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is because Luther’s world was different from what the contemporary man knows; the church had so much power that it was equated to heaven, while the emperor’s represented the â€Å"powers of heaven† (xix). Reading through the book, one gets the impression that Oberman shares in the religious and spiritual issues that he documents about Luther having gone through. He relates the Luther experiences and discoveries both in terms of emotional and physical struggles as the same as what people in the contemporary society face. In the preface, one gets the impression that Oberman does not give religion or the state of the society as much weight as a factor that affected Luther’s life. This is made clear by the phrase, â€Å"It is not the Catholic, protestant or modern Luther we are looking for†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (xix). He however acknowledges that â€Å"we† will encounter religions and society’s state in the course of reading the book. The use of â€Å"we† in preface gives the reader the impression that he/she is not alone in discovering Luther. Oberman makes himself part of the journey too. The dying scene The main body of Oberman’s books starts with the dying scene where Luther is being attended by the â€Å"Reverend father†. It was February 18, 1546 when Luther Died. Before his death, Luther went through some final te sting where witnesses were summoned by his friend Justus Jonas just to confirm that Luther had â€Å"died steadfast in Christ and the doctrines that he had preached† (3). Oberman notes that Luther had always prayed that he would always be able to resist the devil to the very end believing that resisting Satan, who is branded as the ultimate and bitterest enemy to human kind would be his ultimate liberation from the tyranny posed by sin. Oberman also notes that Luther believed that a trust in God convinced him that the agony that he suffered in his life would be nothing more than brief blow upon his death (3).Advertising Looking for critical writing on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Liberal thinking Oberman further succeeds in portraying Luther as a person who had his own way of thinking. As indicated in the book, the author narrates that Luther adjusted his time with benchmarks rather than tolerance , enlightenment, modernity or progress to determine time. In order to understand Luther therefore, Oberman suggests that â€Å"we† need to read Luther’s history with a non-conventional perspective (12). Luther’s influence on the politics of the day seems to have been known to him more than anyone else. In one scene for example, Oberman states that Luther knew he posed a risk to the policy in Saxony. Since he did not want to break the sovereign’s freedoms that would be contained in political actions, he made the Saxony’s elector an attractive proposal that if accepted would have seen him leave the land (22). In a bid to stop Luther from leaving, the elector summoned him and promised to take a neutral position, while granting Luther the academic freedoms necessary to discuss scriptural questions with his students without any hindrances. Yet, Luther’s affair with the law was not always smooth. In 1520 for example, Pope Leo announced a condition al excommunication to Luther based on his works, which the pope defined as â€Å"heretical, offensive and false† (Oberman 22). The pope however gave Luther 60 days to submit a response. Luther however could do nothing like that and finally in 1521, the Pope signed the excommunication letter, hoping that it had finally settled the troubles that arose from Luther. Luther’s supporters argued that the excommunication was motivated by the fact that the church could not stand reformation, yet a time for the same in the church was long overdue (Oberman 24). Reformist, teacher, doctor or preacher? Oberman’s book further notes that Luther’s influence on reformation would have ended sooner were it not for the death of Emperor Maximilian I in 1519. Before the death of the emperor, the Elector Cajetan in Saxon had done a lot to protect Luther. However, his protection of Luther stood no chance of surviving a final decision by the Papacy in Rome. Luckily however, the d eath of the emperor created a political upheaval in succession, which for a fair amount of time shifted attention from the Luther question.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Luther: man between God and the Devil specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The controversy between the Germans and the Papacy regarding Luther was clear as one end held that no one could be placed under a ban without being accorded a suitable hearing, while the other side maintained that Luther was under an automatic ban due to his incorrigible and notorious heretics (Oberman 36). While the Papal attracted critics, Oberman portrays Luther as having gained more public support especially from his writings which criticized how cases were â€Å"nipped in the bud† when they were tried in the imperial, papal or local courts (36). Having argued that no one deserved being banned without being given fair hearing, the Germans succeeded in convincing the Papacy to grant Luther a hearing. In 1521 therefore, Luther appeared before the Bishop’s court sought to find the reality about the accusations of heretics placed on Luther. During the hearing, Oberman portrays Luther as a tactical and knowledgeable person who refused to answer non-specific questions. Asked whether he recognized the books written in his name as his own work, Luther sought to have the books mentioned individually (38). According to Oberman, the mentioning of the books served to dispense the notion that Luther was a â€Å"stupid monk† to anyone in the court room who may have held that idea. Asked whether he could recant, Luther requested the court to give him time to think. On his return the following day, his answer was an indirect one. He said that his books were neither polemical nor sharp. He stated that his writing addressed the Christian faith and life as directed by the gospel. To this end, he stated that not even the opponents woul d find anything objectionable in the books. About the books that addressed the Papacy, Luther told the court that he had addressed how the papal office had ruined the church, weighed the human conscience down and oppressed the empire. He therefore argued that he could not renounce anything he had written in his books because by doing so, he would be encouraging tyranny.Advertising Looking for critical writing on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More By recounting this episode, Oberman portrays Luther as a person who stood steadfast with what he believed in regardless of whether he had the support from others or not. In a documented recounting of the proceeding that took place in the hearing, Luther is portrayed as a watchful person who not only realized that the hearing was not intended to gather information, but rather to accept the anticipated recantation by Luther or uphold the ban. Since the hearing was made of Germans, Luther argued that instead of acting independently, the Germans had acted childishly, allowing themselves to be fooled by the Romans. Oberman observes that though Luther’s evaluation of how the interrogation was conducted was indeed valid, he (Luther) was wrong about the Germans acting childishly. Oberman argues that no where in western Christendom would people find it politically viable to protect a seemingly rebellious monk against extradition from Rome. More so, obtaining a public hearing like what the Germans did for Luther who was perceived by Rome as a notorious heretic was also unusual. According to Oberman therefore, the same Germans who Luther has termed â€Å"follies† had kept his issue alive in such a long time such that the ban imposed by Rome was stifled (Oberman 40). Oberman’s book gives a clear picture of Luther’s attack on Rome and the papacy and gives the reader the actions that made Luther such a bitter person against the actions of Rome. At some point in the book, Luther is quoted saying that every person in Rome had gone crazy and â€Å"†¦had become inane fools and the devils† (Oberman 43). His reason for such strong wording about Romans was the fact that they had accepted the information passed by the church in Rome in that time, which Luther referred to as lies, which were being passed on as truths. According to Luther, Rome was the devil’s gateway to the church, yet, Christ sought representation through people who we re willing to work, preach, suffer and die. Instead however, the office of the Pope which was supposed to act as the servant of Christ leading the way for the church followers had become the â€Å"ruler of rulers† (Oberman 43). Reading this book however, one not only identifies the character of Luther, but also Oberman’s character as well. For instance, by making the devil a central agenda in his biography of Luther, one gets the impression that Oberman shared the convictions that Luther had about good and evil. One also gets the impression that not only does Oberman find the justification for a faith in Christianity, but he also finds â€Å"a new belief in the devil† (104). Surprisingly, Luther and Oberman are from different centuries. Luther was from the middle ages, while Oberman just wrote the book in the 19th century. Yet Oberman’s writing succeeds in portraying the devil not as a medieval residue, but an astonishingly modern reality. Oberman specifi cally portrays Luther’s role giving the reader a new understanding of Satan’s role in a person’s life. Through Luther’s believes and discoveries regarding Satan, Oberman gives the reader a few insights about how Satan allegedly operates. For example, as opposed to what many people may think; holiness and sanctity does not necessarily mean that the devil is absent. According to Luther, acts of Christianity which include preaching the gospels, people gathering to hear God’s word and other things that Christians do in order to strengthen their faiths provoke Satan to attack Christians even more. Luther also notes that in an attempt to ‘mislead’ Christians, the devil ties people down to religiosity. To this, Oberman adds that one is entangle in self devout analysis. He thus concluded that the ideals of divinization, perfection and holiness are Satan’s way of misleading the Christian faithful. Unlike a person who seeks Christ because he or she is â€Å"filthy and sinful†, Oberman notes that those who think they are divine, perfect or holy do not see the need to do so. Oberman is also successful in drawing a distinction between modern Protestantism and what Luther believed. Most notably, Oberman documents the high regard that Luther had for the sacraments. Despite his protests against the act of the Catholic Church and the papacy, Luther is quoted as having said â€Å"I am undeserving, but I rely on the faith of the church- or of another believer. Whatever my situation, O Lord, I must be obedient to your church, which bids me to go to communion. If I bring you nothing else, at least I bring you this Obedience† (Oberman 242). Further distinction between modern Protestantism and what Luther believed is portrayed by Oberman as his demand that Christians go to confession at least once annually. To this, Luther stated that instead of people approaching the sacraments with fear and humility, they should have faith and be confident when taking part in the sacraments. Through abandoning humility and fear and embracing faith and confidence, Luther argued that people would stop seeking worthiness, since no one could be worthy before God. Luther’s stand about the sacrament did not go unchallenged. Oberman notes that the Swiss for example questioned the profit that people got from assuming that Christ’s flesh was represented in the Holy Communion, while Christ himself had dismissed the flesh as having no profit. Further the Swiss questioned Luther how obedience can replace insufficient faith. With no clear answers from Luther regarding these questions, the Swiss branded Luther a neo-papist and a captive of the middle ages (Oberman 242). As a reformist, Oberman portrays Luther as a person who attracted more foes in high ranking positions than was prudent to do at that day and age. For example, he challenged the supremacy of the papacy and the mandate given to councils. Thoug h he acknowledged that the pope deserved respect as the bishop of Rome, while the papacy deserved being held in high regard especially because it was an institution created by agreeing people, he said that neither the pope nor the papacy deserved to serve as the standard of obedience. Instead, the Gospel should be used as the measure of obedience (Oberman 246). Oberman once again portrays Luther as a person who had a firm believe in himself and the things he did. For example, while his friends tried to dissuade him from publicly questioning the authority that the pope and the papacy office had on Christianity, Luther rendered an account based of St. Peter who the pope is modeled after. To this, he said that though Peter had a prime and honorary position among other apostles, his position did not give him any legal supremacy or authority to â€Å"make, send, govern or ordain other apostles† (Oberman 247). Oberman also portrays Luther as a man who believed that the institutions in the church should have been formed under the guidance of the Gospel. This he suggested should have been the case if people adhered to the gospel adequately instead of depending on heresy. According to Oberman, Luther insisted that the unwavering theology of the cross of Christ could not support either catholic-subjectivism or the protestant individualism. Rather, true theology would further unity in Christianity regardless of the denominations and would thus succeed in letting people know the need to heed God’s commandments. A reoccurring image of Luther throughout the book is that of unwavering and often fearless man. One gets the impression that Luther knew the possible implications of his words and actions but still chose to criticize or point out the evils that bedeviled the society mainly because the church then refused to play its rightful role and instead chose to engage in power games and governance. In 1519 for example when his ties with Rome were still intact, O berman observes that Luther said that the church â€Å"was an accumulation if schisms† (249). When the church in Rome finally excommunicated him, he burned the canon law and the bull of the pope to show his rapprochement. This was seen by some as the final act of revolt that Luther had started in 1517. Oberman notes that attempts by those opposed to Luther’s action to brand him a Hussite failed. Hussites had previously waged war against the Catholic Church and labeling Luther as one would no doubt would have cost him some support. Luther is however portrayed as a person who would have cared less about the labels that his opponents gave him. Luther is also portrayed as a person who attached meaning to his dreams. In Oberman’s account, it is stated that Luther had Utopian and devilish dreams, which he quickly recognized as traps set by Satan. In his interpretation, Satan conjured up images of purity for people and then encouraged them to understand the evil contai ned in their words, actions or thoughts (64-66). The reformation Oberman starts the chapter on reformation breakthrough by creating the Luther that people would have expected to see. Having become a doctor of theology, Oberman states that Luther was now in the same ranks as some stupid monks who spent their time arguing about nothing in specific. The monks perceived themselves as guardians of the proper doctrine and piety, yet, they were barely able to â€Å"count their own toes† (151). Oberman therefore portrays Luther as a truth seeker therefore contradicts public expectation of what the learned theologians of his time were used to doing. Oberman credits the reformist ideas of Luther to the fact that he (Luther) encouraged people not only to agree to the idea that God is just, but rather seek him with their entire beings, which included their thoughts and actions; bodies and souls; and suffering and love. Oberman also observes that the search for salvation as championed by Luther suggested that all people; whether educated or not could engage in the same exercise. Still, Oberman portrays Luther who did not allow his understanding of theology to alter his perspective or raise his voice to critique the medieval theologians who were regarded as authorities at that point in history. Central to the reformist ideas of Luther as noted by Oberman was Vicar General Staupitz. The latter is credited by Luther for â€Å"first of all being my father in this doctrine, and having given birth [to me] in Christ† (Oberman 152). Having introduced Luther into the doctrine, Oberman’s book indicates that Staupitz gave him a longing to seek the reality of the principles therein from the scripture. Still, not everything in the scriptures made perfect sense to Luther. More specifically, Oberman quotes Romans 1:17, as a scripture written by the St. Paul as an obstacle that Luther struggled with. The scripture reads: â€Å"For therein [in the gospel] is the right eousness of God revealed† (Oberman 152). During his study of the scriptures however, Luther appear to have come as one thing as the absolute truth; that God’s righteousness is the eternal law through which all men and women will be judged on doomsday. According to Oberman, the righteousness of God is not distributed to humankind like talents; rather, it put men who are willing to abide by God’s teaching in a position where they can attain righteousness. Luther’s discovery about God righteousness however suggests that it is united with Christ’s righteousness, further confirming that Jesus Christ and God the father are one. According to Oberman, Luther’s ability to think originally gave him the reformist qualities. More so, he was willing to test the discoveries he made while studying the scriptures against the prevailing laws used by the church. Luther’s discovert about the righteousness of God was unheard of during his time. He used it to discredit the doctrine of good works as championed by the church and to human action; he discredits the reward and merit ideals which were at the time the main motivators for human action (156). According to Oberman, tribulations and struggles make the true life of a theologian as opposed to speculation or philosophizing. Notably however, Luther’s experiences as a reformist reduce the fears, hopes, successes and struggles to two stages: 1) a desperate monk; and 2) the self-confident reformer. Oberman however notes that Luther astounds scholars because his works seems to have taken some form of systemic research, from which drew conclusions and finally delved into the world of reform. Accordingly, Luther’s reformist ideas were drawn from lesson from St. Augustine and St. Paul. After seeking a deep understanding of the scripture, he indulged in conflict with the pontifical church through logical accusations and arguments. Luther’s reformist role is not only co vered by Oberman alone. Other writers like Levi et al (259-284) have included Luther among the reformers who contributed schismatic solutions towards the renaissance and reformation. Luther’s Death Oberman gives the reader the impression that Luther’s death was not only waited by Luther himself, but his adversaries too. Most notably was Johannes Cochlaeus who first wrote about Luther. Unlike Oberman however, Cochlaeus did not have any kind words for Luther. He instead denounced him as the devil’s spawn that is portrayed in the Bible as the seven-headed dragon. What no one could not establish beyond Luther’s death however was whether his soul was taken by the devil or whether God rewarded it by taking it to everlasting happiness as Luther all along wished for in his life. Their books takes special note of the role that the reformist idea played in Germany at a time when Rome had taken the reigns of power in Europe through the office of the papacy and the p ope as the power figure. In this book however, one gets the idea that Luther’s ideas only set ablaze the feelings about Rome that had simmering in Europe and especially Germany. In an effort to solve the mystery of who between God and the Devil took Luther’s soul, Oberman’s book (3) gives an account of how simple believers and people in the academic world sought to establish the truth. The not-so-informed believers simply imagined that whoever was fast would snatch Luther’s soul first. The academic scholars on the other hand argued that a descent into hell could be easily diagnosed medically. According to their argument, Luther’s death would have been abrupt if the devil took his soul because, â€Å"the devil [would have] snipped the thread of life†¦, thus leaving the church unable to render its last assistance† (Oberman 3). As such, they argued that Luther’s slow death meant that he had commended his soul into the hands of God. Initially, Oberman (4) succeeds in portraying Luther as a patient, understanding and cheerful man who understood the reality of death in such a way that many men would have difficulties doing. More specifically, he describes how Luther knowing his death was imminent chose to spend his last days in his birth place in Eisleben where he mediated a protracted battle between two brothers. Weeks before his death, Luther is portrayed as a patient man who despite his despise for lawyers, spent hours sitting between the two parties trying to mediate them. Oberman also succeeds in portraying Luther as a man who had the nerve to accept that the inevitable death was eventually going to catch up with him. He even seems to have made fun of the fact that in death, he â€Å"would lie down in [his] coffin and give the worms a fat doctor to feast to on.†(5). Oberman also portray Luther as a man who had a firm believes in life after death although he did not state it as a fact. Rather, he said that â€Å"it was very likely† that people’s spirits in heaven would be renewed. He however stated that it was also likely that man’s spirit and body would remain undetached for people who would end up in hell (5). How closely Luther’s friends associated him with a man of God is evident when the news were first broken to his friend Melanchthon. Struggling for control and struggling to get the right words to break the news about Luther’s death to his students, Melanchthon used a phrase used to describe Prophet Elijah’s death. He told his students that the â€Å"charioteer of Israel has fallen† (Oberman 6). Having been the personality behind the evangelical movement and the reformation, Luther left a gap that had no immediate successor. To this end, Oberman manages to bring out the difference in tact between Prophet Elijah and Luther. Unlike Elija who had picked Elisha to be his successor, Luther had refrained from such a thing believin g that the Gospel would be strong enough to charge its own way (Oberman 7). Unfortunately, not every one shared in the Pope’s opinion. Conclusion Overall, reading about Luther gives one the impression that he was an argumentative, single-minded person, who hard an enormous amount of self confidence and believe. This characteristic mainly comes across because he did not waiver even when he faced opposition for his writings or spoken word. Being branded a heretic meant that he could face death by fire. Yet, even with controversies regarding his 95 theses raging, he could not renounce any of his written works or apologize for the same (Cep 5). He strongly believed that he had written the right thing and that apologizing for pinpointing the evils in the society would only lead to more tyranny. His writings and actions however led to his excommunication from the Catholic Church by Pope Leo and since Luther knew he could not reform the church from outside, he began the process of b uilding a new church (Cep 14). This marked the beginning of the protestant church, which was based on the concepts of freedom and liberty. According to Oberman, Luther never referred himself as the reformer; rather, he used the titles professor, preacher or doctor because he believed his role in Christendom was proclaiming the good works which were necessary for the survival of the real religion on the threatened world. Yet, Luther did not fail to have a fair share of shortcomings. Oberman notes that Luther, the ex-monk at some tome adopted the role of a new layman who was eager for the joys and pleasures that come with secular jobs. According to Brady, the new form of apocalypticism and worldliness that overtook Luther at some point meant that he became an alien to reformation (41). The progressive reformation that was as a result of Luther’s actions was far from his initial intention. Reading through Oberman’s account of Luther, it is clear that though Luther imagine d a world where the devil was forever pursuing God’s children, he adopted a sober view of Christianity and hence adopted a reformist role. Works Cited Brady, Thomas. The work of Heiko A. Oberman: papers from the symposium on his seventieth birthday. PA Netherlands: Brill Publishers, 2003. Print Cep, Casey. â€Å"The ecstasy is real†. The Harvard Book Review. Dec. 2008. Web. Levi, et al. Renaissance and Reformation: The Intellectual Genesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University press, 2004. Print. Oberman, Heiko. Luther: man between God and the Devil. California: The Doubleday Religious Publishing Group, 1992. Print. This critical writing on Luther: man between God and the Devil was written and submitted by user Paige Key to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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Definition and Examples of Critical Thinking

Definition and Examples of Critical Thinking Critical thinking is the process of independently analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information as a guide to behavior and beliefs. The American Philosophical Association has defined critical thinking as the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. The process gives reasoned consideration to evidence, contexts, conceptualizations, methods, and criteria (1990). Critical thinking is sometimes broadly defined as thinking about thinking. Critical thinking skills include the ability to interpret, verify, and reason, all of which involve applying the principles of logic. The process of using critical thinking to guide writing is called critical writing. Observations Critical Thinking is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, Critical Thinking is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one’s personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, Critical Thinking is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit.(American Philosophical Association, Consensus Statement Regarding Critical Thinking, 1990)Thought and LanguageIn order to understand reasoning [...], it is necessary to pay careful attention to the relationship between thought and language. The relationship seems to be straightforward: thought is expressed in and through language. But this claim, while true, is an oversimplification. People often fail to say what they mean. Everyone has had the experience of having their \ misunderstood by others. And we all use words not merely to express our thoughts but also to shape them. Developing our critical thinking skills, therefore, requires an understanding of the ways in which words can (and often fail to) express our thoughts.(William Hughes and Jonathan Lavery, Critical Thinking: An Introduction to the Basic Skills, 4th ed. Broadview, 2004) Dispositions That Foster or Impede Critical thinkingDispositions that foster critical thinking include [a] facility in perceiving irony, ambiguity, and multiplicity of meanings or points of view; the development of open-mindedness, autonomous thought, and reciprocity (Piagets term for the ability to empathize with other individuals, social groups, nationalities, ideologies, etc.). Dispositions that act as impediments to critical thinking include defense mechanisms (such as absolutism or primary certitude, denial, projection), culturally conditioned assumptions, authoritarianism, egocentrism, and ethnocentrism, rationalization, compartmentalization, stereotyping and prejudice.(Donald Lazere, Invention, Critical Thinking, and the Analysis of Political Rhetoric. Perspectives on Rhetorical Invention, ed. by Janet M. Atwill and Janice M. Lauer. University of Tennessee Press, 2002)Critical Thinking and Composing- [T]he most intensive and demanding tool for eliciting sustained critical thou ght  is a well-designed writing assignment on a subject matter problem. The underlying premise is that writing is closely linked with thinking and that in presenting students with significant problems to write about- and in creating an environment that demands their best writing- we can promote their general cognitive and intellectual growth. When we make students struggle with their writing, we are making them struggle with thought itself. Emphasizing writing and critical thinking, therefore, generally increases the academic rigor of a course. Often the struggle of writing, linked as it is to the struggle of thinking and to the growth of a persons intellectual powers, awakens students to the real nature of learning.(John C. Bean,  Engaging Ideas: The Professors Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical  Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom, 2nd ed. Wiley, 2011)- Finding a fresh approach to a writing assignment means that you must see the subject without the blinders of preconception. When people expect to see a thing in a certain way, it usually appears that way, whether or not that is its true image. Similarly, thinking based on prefabricated ideas produces writing that says nothing new, that offers nothing important to the reader. As a writer, you have a responsibility to go beyond the expected views and present your subject so that the reader sees it with fresh eyes. . . .[C]ritical thinking is a fairly systematic method of defining a problem and synthesizing knowledge about it, thereby creating the perspective you need to develop new ideas. . . .Classical rhetoricians used a series of three questions to help focus an argument. Today these questions can still help writers understand the topic about which they are writing. An sit? (Is the problem a fact?); Quid sit (What is the definition of the problem?); and Quale sit? (What kind of problem is it?). By asking these questions, writers see their subject from many new angles before they begin to narrow the focus to one particular aspect.(Kristin R. Woolever, About Writing: A Rhetoric for Advanced Writers. Wadsworth, 1991) Logical Fallacies Ad Hominem Ad Misericordiam Amphiboly Appeal to Authority Appeal to Force Appeal to Humor Appeal to Ignorance Appeal to the People Bandwagon Begging the Question Circular Argument Complex Question Contradictory Premises Dicto Simpliciter, Equivocation False Analogy False Dilemma Gamblers Fallacy Hasty Generalization Name-Calling Non Sequitur Paralepsis Poisoning the Well Post Hoc Red Herring Slippery Slope Stacking the Deck Straw Man Tu Quoque

NO TOPIC SO FAR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

NO TOPIC SO FAR - Essay Example The Director of CBO gave a detailed testimony to outline how many government programs can impede economic growth by increasing the marginal tax rate. An increase in the marginal tax rate affects the amount of the money that households can use for savings and investments. The effect of low savings and investments is slow economic growth. The impact of increasing marginal tax rates can be explained using a case example of a single mother who makes approximately $20,000 in a year. The mother will be forced to pay an additional 15 cents as a tax because of the income raise (Jacobs). Furthermore, her eligibility to support programs like food stamps, Earned Income Credit tax, and Medicaid can be eliminated or slightly reduced. The situation creates a poverty trap for an average modest family in America. The CBO estimates the Obamacare law will discourage work and lead to increased rate of unemployment. The effect of the Obamacare law on employment is clarified by Patton in his Forbes article â€Å"Is Obamacare an Economic Disaster?† According to Patton, the heavy demands placed on employers by the law will prompt them to cut down the number of employees (Patton). They have to consider firing some employees for them to afford paying the cost of healthcare. Employers can also reduce the number of hours covered by employees to avoid increasing the cost by paying health insurance. It would also increase the price of products and services to cover the additional cost of providing health insurance. All these actions result in loss of income for many families. It reduces the amount of money available for saving and investments. Some people might lack the mean to take care of their families. Reducing the number of hours worked, increasing operating costs and loss of employees creates a business environment that makes forecasting impossible. Therefore, businesses will fear to invest and save. They would cut on additional

Carl Orff songwriter, composer and publisher Research Paper

Carl Orff songwriter, composer and publisher - Research Paper Example 377). Without having anyone to teach him to write and compose songs, he managed to create his own music based on how he understands music. Using his talent in music, Orff composed a lot of songs for stage puppet shows which over the years has significantly influenced the music education for children. According to Jorgensen (2003, p. 6), the use of patriarchy in teaching music, oppression, violence, and exclusivity is dehumanizing since this type of teaching technique does not acknowledge the importance of freedom, equality, humanity, and inclusiveness necessary to prevent injustice and inhumanity. In line with this, Orff realized that the teaching and learning approach to music was ineffective (Keene, 2009, p. 376). Orff strongly supports the idea that each child should be given the opportunity to â€Å"experience music within their own level of understanding† (Classics for Kids, 2011). Since Orff strongly believe that children needs to experience music, Orff suggested that a more effective way of teaching children music is to make them master the use of musical instruments like piano or violin (Keene, 2009, p. 376). The way music teachers are currently teaching music inside a classroom is strongly influenced by some of the famous historical musicians such as in the case of Carl Orff (Jorgensen, 2003, p. 12; Keene, 2009, p. 376). ... terested in developing and implementing â€Å"a new way of teaching music† (Victorian Orff Schulwek Association, 2011; Orff, Murray, & Keetman, 1976, p. 13). Throughout his career as a musician, Orff spent some time teaching young students how to become creative by expressing how they feel in music (Warner, 1991, p. 3). To enable the students compose unique and more interesting music, Orff explained the need to teach and encourage the students to improvise and be more creative when playing musical instruments (Victorian Orff Schulwek Association, 2011). Using this kind of teaching technique, the students under the guidance of Orff were able to enjoy their freedom to improvise and explore the production of music without the need to stay focus on musical theories and concepts that already exists in the field of music education. As a composer and musician, Orff strongly supports the idea that each child should be given the opportunity to joy composing and creating their own music . In line with this, Orff spent time developing a teaching method which focuses on educating the students with music using alternative methods like group exercises (Maubach, 2006). Believing that the whole body should be involved when playing music, Orff’s movement in educating the students was multifaceted. Therefore, he decided to integrate music not only in singing but also the use of speech, body movements like folk dance, clapping, finger clicking, and stamping, and the use of tuned and percussion non-tuned percussion like tambourines, glockenspiels, recorders, and xylophones in encouraging the students to create their own music (Victorian Orff Schulwek Association, 2011; Keene, 2009, p. 377; Maubach, 2006). As explained by Maubach (2006), Orff strongly believes that each child who spends

An Analysis Of The Gift Market Within India Marketing Essay

An Analysis Of The Gift Market Within India Marketing Essay On the basis of the literature review and study of the gifting industry, there is a need to introduce a newer and more innovative way to gift for individuals as well as corporate houses. The research establishes the need for personalization  [3]  , creativity and uniqueness to enhance the value of a gift.  [4]  It helps communicate clearly how much meaning and value the recipient holds in the givers life. A gift which is personalized as per the recipients interests, personality and hobbies makes it a more memorable experience and is likely to lead to greater emotional connect between individuals and enhanced, more loyal business relationships for corporates  [5]  . In spite of the added advantages of a personal and well thought of gift, people and corporate houses are either hard pressed for time and are ready to pay a premium for convenience and saving time or they are at loss of how to express and what to communicate through a gift. Thus, establishing a need for service provider to fulfill the above need gaps. From a research perspective an attempt will be made to understand in the importance of personalization in gifting and the role of gist service providers in the process of gifting., 2.2 Research Gap Research for gifting amongst individuals throws light on what is gifting, what parameters do people look at before giving a gift, the trends and attitudes of certain target groups towards gifting, anxiety in the gifting process. Among corporates the research currently studies how corporate gifts help increasing and enhancing business relationships and marketing efforts. There is a need to study specific parameters that enhance the value of the gift and the gifting process. Through this project and the preliminary research, gaps in the gifting industry for individuals and corporates will be identified and researched further in detail 2.3 Nature of study The flow that will be followed to arrive at an entrepreneurial opportunity and business concept in the Indian gifting industry for the Venture Incubation project will include a literature review on the gifting industry and primary and secondary research to support the concept proposed. After this a business plan will be developed and tested in the market. Finally an experiential report of the same will be given. 2.4 Deliverables of the Venture incubation project Research findings An innovative package and concept to provide gifts in a unique manner and provide convenience to the individuals and corporates in the process of gifting Validation report by testing and implementing product and service offerings in the market Literature review 3.1 What is gifting? The following is a study of the meaning of gifting and the unique trends in consumer behavior related to gift giving. Challenges to retailers and the negative effects of gifting have also been studied to understand what are the influential factors affecting a gift giver and recipient. Why we shop, Emotional rewards and retail strategies, by author Jim Pooler(2003), explains Gifting as a form of Shopping from the heart. He states People will spend far more money to please another person with a gift than they will spend on shopping for themselves. According to his study, Gifting represents one of the most illogical shopping behaviors. Why are people so anxious to please others with gifts? Pooler (2003) describes Gifting as a tool to make a statement about ones feelings. This in turn leads to strengthening of an emotional bond between the giver and the recipient. The emotion or expense in a gift is considered a measure of ones respect, esteem or love for one another. Example- a child drawing a card for his mothers birthday or a lover writing a poem or a person spending hours looking for the perfect gift is making an emotional investment and represents what one person thinks of the other. Gifts act as a tool for expression especially when articulating ones feelings become difficult. In such a case, they act as mediator between the two people involved. According to Unitymarketingonline, the  Greeting Card, Stationery, Gift Wrap Party Goods and Paper Crafting Report 2007 is a $37.4 billion market  [6]  .The greeting card industry which specifically represents a $7.5 billion industry in the US market, thrives, on its ability to provide emotional expression. Greeting cards are also commonly used to accompany gifts well.  [7]  This multi-billion dollar industry offers real advantages of helping one express their deep emotions briefly besides saving time, effort, money and providing convenience.  [8]  According to Danziger, with 70 % of American household purchasing greeting cards, it makes it the third most frequently purchased product that people do not need. This directly implies the power of the gifting and emotional consumerism. Gifting is a two way process -A challenge disguised as an opportunity for the marketer and retailer in the gift business is the understanding that a gift is meant and directed both towards the receiver and the giver. According to Pooler (2003), A customer is always seeking re-assurance that the given gift will bring him/her as much emotional satisfaction as the person for whom he is buying it. Thus, gifts at one level bring personal satisfaction and are self-indulgent in nature. People are irrational when they gift- Another advantage for the marketer in the gifting business is the irrational and unjustified expenditure a consumer is willing to make on it, so as long as it makes emotional sense. Thus, customers are largely price insensitive, especially if the strength of the relationship between the receiver and giver is strong. This allows retailers t tap into the potential of high margin products. Gifting is largely occasion specific-Lastly, occasions and holidays such as anniversaries, Valentines days and in India religious festivals such as Diwali and Dhanteras represent an area of gifting where demand is literally inelastic. Not purchasing a gift on such days is unthinkable. Occasions such as Valentines, Anniversaries, Mothers day, where a son, husband, boyfriend is in a situation where he must make a purchase act as a major opportunity for specialty stores selling chocolates, flowers, and jewelery. Male shoppers are more ready to high prices and do not look for bargains in such situations thus presenting an advantageous scenario for retailers. Gifting leads to anxiety- David B Wooten has explored the negative effects of gifting by detailing the emotional trauma a giver goes through in the process of choosing the perfect gift for the recipient. Some of the factors that up the stress levels while gifting are:  [9]   Effect of the gift on the recipient- The giver is constantly thinking about the reaction of the recipient towards the gift and the consequential effect on their relationship.. This is possible when the effect of the gift on the recipient is positive and helps build and strengthen the relationship between the giver and the recipient. Thus, this represents an opportunity for retailers or gift service providers, who can make the experience of giving gifts simple and tension free. Obligation to reciprocate sparks tensions (Mauss1954) Disparities and comparison between gifts may lead to negative emotional outcomes (Belk and Coon 1993). This may be due to absence of set parameters or guidelines before exchanging gifts. Differences and expectations -Green and Alden (1988) cited differences between individual goals and group expectations as sources of anxiety among givers. Sherry et al. (1993) cited the unattainable expectations that recipients impose upon givers as a possible. Both act as sources of anxiety as the consequences of such differences and expectations are likely to be negative. Inappropriateness of gifts- can lead to frustration, social embarrassment, threaten social ties and likely to leave long lasting bitter memories. (Sherry et al. 1993). Recipient woes- Otnes et al. (1992)have points out different types of recipients Difficult and Picky ones have expectations that are either hard to meet and Unfamiliar ones have expectations that are hard to determine Such recipients impede a gift givers efforts . Dark side of giving  [10]   Concerns about gift interpretation and the fact that a giver cannot control these interpretations gifts suggest that that scholarship on self-presentation and social anxiety can help illuminate what has been called a dark side of giving. Retailers challenge and opportunity -Keeping in mind the above frustrations and anxiety that goes on in the mind of the consumer. It poses as a real challenge for marketers, retailers and new gift service providers to mitigate these anxieties. This may be providing convenience, better consumer insight, and personalized gifts. There seems to be a need for specialists in the gifting service AN EXPANDED MODEL OF ANXIETY IN GIFT-GIVING The expanded model of anxiety in Gift Giving proposed by Wooten in this research (Figure 1) explains the sources of the anxiety in gift giving . This brings out why retailers and marketers must try and mitigate these emotional anxieties NOTE.-All effects are positive unless otherwise noted. The letters G, R, and S denote characteristics of givers, recipients, and situations, respectively. Figure 1.1-Study of trends, attitudes and behavior of youth towards gifting. Megha Nainwal, Batch of 2004, MICA, 3.2 Gifting Industry- World and Indian Market The world gift market represents an industry in excess of $300 billion. It accounts for 10% of world consumer economy, which is equivalent to spending one out of every ten dollars on buying gifts.  [11]   The Indian gift market is still in nascent stages with per unit consumption being very low as compared to developed markets of US and Europe ( 0.5 as against 30+)  [12]  .The Indian Gift Market is a Rs.1000 crore gift market is looking up to progress at a rate of 10% (2007 estimates)  [13]  . A large part of this gift market is unorganized, thus making correct estimates of the size of the market difficult. The Premium and Gift Market is mostly concentrated out of the major cities. Mumbai is the largest centre, followed by New Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai and Ahmedabad.  [14]   The Indian Gift market comprises of organized retail stores, local and regional players and social organizations as well. In the organized sector, the two leading players in the specialized gifting stores include Archies and Hallmark. The Indian market is highlighted by important festivals such as Diwali and Holi for gift giving , however, westernization of culture has led to occasions such as Valentines day, Mothers day, Father s day becoming popular gift giving occasions. 3.3 Gifting market- Social, shopping and gifting trends The following represent changing social, shopping and gift giving trends in the market: 1) General increase in gift purchasing budget- According to Unity Marketing online- The Ultimate Guide to the  American Gift Giving Market. The   Report 2007:The Who, What, Where, How Much and Why of Gift Giving Shopping  , the typical gift giver spent $2,643 on gift purchases in 2006, with an additional $78 spent on gift cards, wrapping paper, ribbons and other gifting accessories.   This represents an increase of 13.5 percent over the average amount spent by gift givers in 2005. 2) Gifting 365 days a year-According to,Pam Danziger, president of Unity Marketing and author of Shopping:   Why We Love It and How Retailers Can Create the Ultimate Customer Experience ,People are spending more for gifts on occasions that occur throughout the year rather than holiday occasions such as Christmas. 42 percent of gift shoppers annual budgets were spent buying gifts for gifting occasions, as compared to 38.5 percent in 2005.   There is no longer a single gifting season. 3) Corporate Gifting, a tool to enhance marketing and PR efforts- In the recent years Corporate gifting has emerged as an important tool in the market communication mix of companies. In the corporate world, gift giving can be a double-edge sword (Pachter, 1995).A corporate gift if tactfully presented can help improve business relationships with customers and employees, create goodwill, develop new relationships and promote the companys business. The three identified categories of corporate gifts are: Low value, High volume to promote companys name Standard gifts, suit most occasions and not occasion specific- They are perceived to be of higher value and presented in a more personal way Luxury gifts-high value, low volume products that address an individual and carry prestige based on strong brands (Mintel, 1997). There has been a shift in business gifting from it being a sales promotion tool to corporate gifting being used to build relationships. The total value of the promotional industry including corporate gifts and incentives was 10.1 billion in 2001 (Mintel, 2000, p. 16). Corporate gifting requires an organization to keep role, purpose, budget and recipient in mind while gifting. Secondly, the choice, occasion and timing of gift are important. Lastly, cross cultural implications of gift giving must be taken into account, because in some countries a gift may be considered a bribe. Corporate gifts should be chosen with care and maintain a personal touch. Research shows people appreciate personalized products especially if they use them regularly. Most successful gifts today are personalized or have a personal touch; they are more creative and more memorable  [15]  . One study estimates that more than one quarter of all business gifts today are imprinted with the recipients name or monogram (Feder, 1998). DSouza and Sansburys (2000) research on business gift-giving in India gives some interesting insights. Asked about gift giving 86 percent of respondents said they viewed it as a norm that businesses should practice. Additionally, the research shows it is common to accept gifts to close a deal and gifts often serve as a tool for strengthening supplier relationships. The research also talks about reciprocity, which is considered a universal moral standard (Steidlmeier, 1999) particularly in Asian business context to build trust, respect and show appreciation (Stafford, 1997). 3) Emerging specialized consumer segments-Gender separation as a trend is likely to find stores making specialty sections for men and women. Additionally, demographic targeting as per psychographic buying behavior will be important to meet consumer needs individually. Gift buyers can be segmented on the basis of their purchase behavior. The typical American Gift Shopper can be divided into the following personalities  [16]   Emotional Ethel/Ed most involved gift giver and shopper and spends the most time and enjoys the process as well. Both men and women fall into this segment almost equally.. Practical Patty Plans her gift shopping and is likely to make checklists and be practical about her purchases. She spends more than the average gift shopper. Gift-Challenged Charlie Wants and feel the duty of giving gifts but finds the process difficult in terms of finding and selection. He spends less than average on gift purchases. Just-in-Time Justin- gives importance to gifting and spends average on his purchases. He knows what to buy, however always waits till the last minute. The men and women ratio is 60 :40 Such segments mark a need for retailers and marketers to make efforts in meeting demands of these niche segments with specialized products and individually assess each consumers needs. Traditional, generic products for gifting are likely to lose out and there will be a rise in personal , customized products. 4) The evolution of the shopping hierarchy and Gifting for self  [17]   The traditional pyramid of shopping is evolving, as we find that the pie of shopping for self actualization, personal fulfillment and emotional gratification increases. Elaborating the fourth level of shopping for esteem needs, it is about people feeling good about themselves and the situation they are in life. And this feeling is derived from the things they own and purchase. The fifth level of shopping is extremely indulgent in nature and people are willing to spend a lot to acknowledge themselves and make one self feel good. Gifting being a self- indulgent activity as described in the research above, will fall in this level of shopping. Additionally, experiential shopping such as travel, cruises, spa treatments also fall in this category. These experiences are purchases purely for the value of the experience and not to show-off. According to a study among Attitude amongst Indian Youth on Gift purchase, 92% of the respondents between age 18 to 30 year olds bought gifts for themselves.  [18]   As the economies of the world progress and disposable income rises, most people will tend to fall in the category of shopping for self actualization. Access to internet to purchase time and convenience or buying tickets to a cruise that provides self actualizing experiences via dance shows, rock climbing walls, concept restaurants will be the norm. Fig 1.2 Jim pooler (2003), Why we shop, Emotional rewards and retail strategies Evolution of the levels of shopping,, pg 141 5) Experiential gifting  [19]   Not much importance has been given to experience gifts however, the UK marketplace alone, represents experiences bought as gifts from specialist experience companies (for example, Virgin Experience Days, Experience World) around  £239 million per annum (Mintel). Additionally, there is also an unknown figure for gifts bought from individual leisure, activity, entertainment, hospitality and tourism suppliers. Trade and lifestyle magazine evidence (Consumers Association, 2002; Knight, 2003) suggest that the intangible experience is an increasingly popular gift choice Unity Marketings Gift Tracker survey in the USA describes it as a hot gift category for the future (Souvenirs, Gifts, Novelties, 2005, p. 92) People are purchasing experiences to share and make memories with the people they love and even for themselves. As a marketer there is an unfulfilled need gap in the industry for such gifts especially in the Indian markets. 6) Internet shopping gaining ground  [20]   People prefer Internet shopping for many reasons. Convenience of shopping from home, more and better access of information, reduces hassle of travelling and shopping from stores and they dont particularly care about the in-store experience. The value- adds of internet shopping mitigates the disadvantages such as giving up experiencing the product, personal service and immediate physical transaction of goods. Online shopping statistics  out in  February 2009  show a significant annual increase of  13%.  [21]   According to a Nielsen study in 2008, India emerged as the 3rd biggest nation when it comes to online shopping and using a credit card online. Also, 85 per cent of the world Internet users purchasing goods or services online use credit cards as the most common form of payment. As competition increases it will become more and more important for websites to become favorable, memorable and unique in the minds of the consumers. 7) Choosing a thoughtful gift The Long Tail Gifting phenomena explains ,consumers will be looking for more and more unusual gifts that reflect a persons real interests.  [22]  . According to an Indian study on youth attitude toward gifting, the following were analyzed to be the most important factors influencing the decision of choosing a gift. Gifting what a recipient would like as per his tastes/interests, occasion, permanent reminder, unique, surprise value, individuality and personalization. All these factors spell a trend towards gifting something different and suited to the receivers personality. It is no longer enough to gift traditional gift items. Additionally, Indian businesses such as www.pringoo.com and www.craftmygift.com in addition to many other personalized gifting websites all around the world suggest a growth in this category. One can personalize any item from a mug to a mouse pad to even a wine bottle label. Gifts and Accessories, the only sourcing tool for novelties, states that Personalized product industry has very bright promising future ahead for a simple reason that everybody loves a personal message or their name on a product. Gift recipient would like 9% Strength of relationship 8% Quality 8% Occasion 8% Permanent reminder 7% Functionality 7% Uniqueness 7% Surprise value 7% Budget 7% Express Individuality 7% Personalization 7% Novelty /Humor 6% Themselves like to receive 6% Handcrafting 5% Brand make 1% Fig 1.3 Factors in order of importance while choosing a gift  [23]   8) Time is money As work pressures continue, more and more consumers will find themselves spending more money to buy time. The case of working women must be kept in mind who will find themselves multi-tasking and more willing to spend greater portions of the household income to save time.  [24]   This implies the need for service providers to provide convenience to consumers in terms of time and effort spent. As marketer/retailer, one can charge a premium for providing such services. 9) The new old Consumers will find themselves producing homemade, hand crafted gifts such as wood carvings, paintings etc.  [25]   10) New Gifting categories such as Virtual gifting- Facebook applications such as Farmville, restaurant city and free gift applications will emerge. Other examples of emergent categories include green gifts for the environmentally concerned.

Character Analysis of Othello Essay examples -- Papers Shakespeare Ess

Character Analysis of Othello â€Å"Othello† is a tragedy and Othello is a tragic hero. Othello is a general in the service of Venice. He is good, courageous, brave and trustworthy. However he has some weaknesses such as insecurity; he is too open, naà ¯ve, and gullible, Iago plays on his weaknesses which brings about his downfall and he kills himself. This causes the suffering of innocent people like Desdemona, Emilia, Cassio and Roderigo. The audience also feel pity for Othello and this creates a sense of wastage at the end. Iago’s main aim is to bring about Othello’s downfall. He has many reasons for this, such as his anger as Othello rejected him for the post of lieutenant and he hates the fact that a black man has such a high position, who has the power to reject him. Iago’s plan to destroy Othello is mainly motivated by racism. He suspects that Othello slept with his wife. This play was written by Shakespeare in the 17th century. During that time, the attitude of the people towards the black people was negative. The black people were treated as lower class citizens. This play is initially set in Venice in the mid 15th century. The Venetians would also have treated them worse and differently. Shakespeare wanted to show the black character in a positive light and create sympathy for him representing him as a victim of racism to make a comment on his society. Shakespeare uses various dramatic devices in this play. This essay will explain to what extent racism contributes to Othello’s downfall. Act 3 scene 3 is important because this is the scene where the character of Othello changes. Before this scene, Shakespeare has already ena... ...on as a result of Othello’s insecurities, such as jealousy. It could also be argued that these insecurities are caused mainly by the racist society. Which at its heart it is racist and sees him as an outsider as this play is set on Venice. It is not just Iago who refers to him as a moor. â€Å"I am one sir†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ moor are now making the beast with to backs†. But Brabantio also says that â€Å"Look to her, moor, if thou†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ and may thee†. Othello also recognises this as a possible reason for Desdemona’s infidelity. â€Å"For haply I am black†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  However there is one other consideration to take into account Othello acts with reason, rather then emotion when he decides to kill Desdemona; He still loves her. But his need to be in control is stronger in the end. He feels that his duty is to kill her. Finally both the factors are to be blamed.

Cognitive Explanation of Gambling Addiction (10 Mark)

Outline and evaluate the cognitive explanation of gambling addiction (4 marks + 6 marks) The cognitive explanation of addiction focuses on the way humans’ process information, viewing addicts as people who have faulty thoughts/judgements. The faulty thinking that surrounds a gambling addiction, according to the cognitive approach, is the belief that we will win, or at least be able to control the odds of winning, for example, a gambling addict, using his/her ‘lucky numbers’ on the lottery gives them some control over the outcome of the gamble.According to the cognitive model, a gambling addiction may be maintained by irrational or erroneous beliefs. For example, some gamblers may misjudge how much money they have won or lost, or they may over-estimate the extent to which they can predict/influence gambling outcomes. Griffiths held a study looking into these irrational biases, using fruit machine gamblers. His aim was to discover whether regular gamblers thought an d behaved differently to non-regular gamblers.He compared the verbalisations of 30 regular and 30 non-regular gamblers as they played a fruit machine. Griffiths found that regular gamblers believed they were more skilful than they really were, and that they were more likely to make irrational verbalisations during play, for example, regular players may say ‘putting only a quid in bluffs the machine’, or they would treat the machine as if it were a person, giving it emotions: ‘this fruity isn’t in a good mood’. Regular gamblers also explained away their losses be seeing ‘near misses’ as ‘near wins’, i. . they weren’t constantly losing but constantly ‘nearly winning’, something that justified their continuation. The cognitive model also uses heuristics as an explanation of addictive behaviour. Heuristics are used to simplify decisions and justify behaviour, for example, some gamblers will have ‘hindsi ght bias’, saying after a gambling session that they knew what was going to happen. This makes gamblers feel empowered as it suggests they have some control over their wins/losses. Other gamblers may use flexible attribution; this is where they ttribute any wins to their own skill and any losses to other influences. Others may solely concentrate on how much they won ignoring how much they lost to get it. This is called absolute frequency bias. The theories of the cognitive approach are strengthened by the substantial amount of evidence that supports its general principles, for example, it has been shown that alcoholics, smokers, over-eaters, gamblers and opiate addicts were particularly likely to lapse when they experienced negative emotional states.A further strength of the model is that it has initiated implications for treatment, for example, the cognitive approach has made clear that the relapse prevention model must be tailored to each individual addict. However, the mod el is criticised as there have been claims that irrationality is an erratic predictor of addictive behaviour, irrationality does not appear to have a strong relationship with other observable assets of gambling, such as level of risk taking or reinforcement frequency.Therefore cause and effect of cognitive bias cannot be established. Cognitive explanations may also be limited to particular addictions, for example, it may be less relevant to chemical addictions like heroin, but is useful and effective explanation for gambling or video game addiction. It is also difficult to establish cause and effect over skill perception and gambling – beliefs about skill in gambling vary across individuals, such beliefs are not necessarily irrational either.